About the ICT4COP project
Community-based policing and post conflict police reform
This European Commission Horizon 2020 Research & Innovation project commenced on 1 June 2015, following a five-year grant from the European Commission’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation program. The Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) is the project coordinator.
Understanding human security in post-conflict areas is at the core of this project. Where conventional, top-down police reforms fail, Community-Based Policing (COP) holds promise – but also entails challenges.
Project coordinator:
Ambition and challenges
AMBITION
The project comprises 11 work packages. In-depth qualitative research will be conducted in a total of 11 case countries, spread across Latin America, South-Eastern Europe, Africa, and South Asia. Crosscutting themes include youth, gender, technology, and police training.The research is interdisciplinary, with a common, overarching methodology and a strong focus on dissemination and exploitation of research results.
A clear ambition for the project is to analyze both differences and commonalities in community-oriented policing in very different post-conflict societies, to better inform development and security policy, reform processes, and training and education.
CHALLENGES
Post-conflict societies, although they vary in most respects, have something in common: public institutions are considered weak and untrustworthy. This is true for policing institutions as well. Abuse of policing powers, corrupt practices, and impunity are characteristics people often ascribe to their authorities. Meanwhile, conflicts have regional and global ramifications. Citizens everywhere are endangered by problems arising from conflict, such as human and drug trafficking, and terrorism.This research project sets out to better understand these and interlinked challenges, and to propose new ways for dealing with them. Questions to be addressed include:
- Could policing in post-conflict societies become a public service and not merely a public authority?
- Are the police in post-conflict societies accountable to the population, and able to respond to gender- and youth-specific crimes and insecurities?
- To what degree can information and communications technologies contribute to or detract from improved human security for vulnerable populations?
Work packages, themes and researchers
WP1: Project Management and Coordination
Contributing staff:
WP2: Community-Based Policing in Comparison
This project took an explorative methodological approach in which co-creation of knowledge is a fundamental tenet.
Drawing on ethnographic and anthropological methodologies, our researchers have employed a variety of methods to create knowledge together with individual, group and institutional informants. Individual interviews and focus groups were, for instance, frequently used methods.
While we have used the overall explorative approach and qualitative methodology as a basis, the different work packages have made their own methodological choices based on the respective research contexts.
At the same time, the approach and methods employed allowed for comparisons across research areas. Comparison between cases has been a key feature of the ICT4COP project, especially as regards crosscutting themes such as gender relations or technological development.
Contributing staff:
Kari Osland
Senior Research Fellow, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI)
Strategic discussions on project methodology, observer on the Steering Committee, participated in the General Assembly on behalf of NUPI. Osland facilitated collaboration between work packages to ensure coherence and interdisciplinarity, contributed to the creation of deliverables that analyze complex and interdisciplinary findings such as the e-learning handbooks and use of digital stories, and was involved in the planning and implementation of annual meetings.
Grete Benjaminsen
Researcher in Development Studies, Norway
Conducted comparative and meta-analysis of project results across countries and regions, and based on these led the work to develop an e-handbook on community-oriented policing. Benjaminsen worked closely with Neil Davey on training and assisting project researchers in developing research-based Digital Stories that were used in the e-handbooks, and co-authored an article on the use of Digital Storytelling as a Tool for Qualitative Data Interpretation and Communication. Benjaminsen also contributed to the broader internal quality assurance and peer review of articles.
Maria Gilen Røynsamb
Junior Researcher, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI)
Identified comparative findings and authored a paper on this topic. Røysamb is a Junior Researcher in the Peace, Conflict and Development Research Group at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI). Røynsamb holds a master’s degree in Political Science from the University of Oslo.
Daniel Lohmann
Leader of WP11: Dissemination and Exploitation of Results from September 2020 through the end of the project. Previously contributed to WP2 as a research assistant. He co-wrote an editorial for the project’s special issue on police-community relations, reviewed various articles and policy briefs, participated in workshops and conferences for the project, and helped draft the project’s final reporting.
WP3 : Technology Development
Understanding how vulnerable communities engage with technology to cope with insecurities has been a central part of our project.
The technological development work package has evaluated the role, uses, infrastructure, and ethical realities of inclusive technology and information networks in communities confronting chronic violence, active conflicts, or in post-conflict societies.
Of particular interest has been how communities experience and navigate interactions with state security and police forces, and how they use inclusive technologies to build their resilience to crisis, improve their own security, and safeguard themselves.
The Department of Informatics (Ifi) at University of Oslo was responsible for coordinationg technology efforts across the project, conducting context analysis, and developing context-appropriate plans alongside community organisations for the inclusion of technology in community policing activities. This includes COP ICT pilots in Kenya and Guatemala, and development of a Knowledge Base System.
Contributing staff:
Arunima Mukherjee
Researcher, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Norway
Led the ICT pilots under the project. Her work is inspired by her interest to understand the question ‘are we making a better world with ICTs?’ Her research has involved fieldwork in South Asia, Kenya and Guatemala –culturally complex societies.
Petter Nielsen
Associate Professor, Department of Informatics, University of Oslo, Norway
Coordinated work on the design of the knowledge-based system. Specialised in digital platforms and innovation in the context of developing countries and related socio-economic development.
Content management and design of the knowledge-based system.
WP4: Police Training and Education
Our project is rooted in policing practice and international policing expertise.
The Norwegian Police University College was responsible for the police training work package, and has established an extensive network of policing experts from around the world who consult project researchers on a voluntary basis.
The work package has used research findings to establish a ‘best practice’ police training method and curricula for community-oriented policing. Of interest here is the possible relevance but also the ethical pitfalls of the use of big data in community-based policing.
Contributing staff:
Anne Rød
Associate Professor, Norwegian Police University College. International process facilitation expert, specialising in change and team development
Leader of WP4: Police Training and Education from 2017-2020. Rød led the production aspects in the development of the e-learning program, as well as serving as project and stakeholder liaison, and leading implementation and dissemination activities.
Tor Damkås
Retired Police Superintendent, Norwegian Police University College
Leader of WP4: Police Training and Education from 2015 – 2017. Damkås oversaw a number of the work package’s deliverables. He was active during the project application phase and was responsible for establishing and running the Police Experts Network (PEN).
Jaishankar Ganapathy
Associate Professor, Norwegian Police University College. Social Anthropologist, University of Oslo, Norway
WP8: South Asia; WP4: Police Training and Education; and WP5: Youth Issues. Ganapathy's research focused mainly on Afghanistan, including COP in Afghanistan, Norwegian police contributions in Afghanistan, Youth in Afghanistan, as well as other broader considerations of COP and police reform.
Thomas Knape
Founder | Director - Analytics Technology & Business
Knape contributed to the project with an analysis of the use of big data.
Alf Halvard Næsje
Regional Secretary/Office Manager. Norwegian Centre Party, Hedmark and Oppland
Næsje wrote the methodology used by the work package. Næsje gathered and analyzed curricula for community-oriented policing towards the establishment of a best practice police training method.
Kristian Larsen
Senior Advisor, Norwegian Police University College
Larsen was responsible for content production and development of the e-learning program.
WP5: Youth
In conflict-ridden and post-conflict societies, some groups in society are more vulnerable than others, and youth may be such a group.
In this project, we have studied the role and engagement of youth in community-oriented policing. Youth have a peculiar role in that they may be seen both as a group in need of special protection by security institutions and as the very group that creates instability and insecurity in fragile societies.
The work package has used research findings to establish a ‘best practice’ police training method and curricula for community-oriented policing. Of interest here is the possible relevance but also the ethical pitfalls of the use of big data in community-based policing.
Contributing staff:
Fabienne Coenders
Research Officer, Ruhr University in Bochum (RUB), Germany
Leader of WP5: Gender Issues and WP10: South East Europe. Within WP5, she conducted cross-cutting research on youth across all the project’s study regions, and within WP10 she was specifically responsible for research conducted in Kosovo.
Thomas Feltes
Lawyer and social scientist, Law Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
Supervised and formally led the efforts of Ruhr University Bochum in the ICT4COP project from 2015 to the summer of 2019, only leaving the project due to retirement. Feltes was actively involved in the grant application process and took part in setting out the objectives for the work in WP5 and WP10. His extensive network in South-East Europe as well as elsewhere in the academic, policing and policymaking world was strongly beneficial to the project.
Tobias Singlenstein
Chair of Criminology, Law Faculty, Ruhr University in Bochum (RUB), Germany
WP5: Youth Issues and WP10: South East Europe. Supervised and formally led the efforts of Ruhr University Bochum starting in the summer of 2019 until the project’s extended end date in November 2020. He was also engaged in the planning and implementation of the post-project exploitation plan.
Robin Hoffman
Assistant Professor, Department for Criminal Law and Criminology, Maastricht University, Netherlands
WP5: Youth Issues and WP10: South East Europe. Conducted extensive field research in Kosovo for the project until the beginning of 2018. Together with Thomas Feltes, he published the International Handbook on Information Communication Technologies for Community Oriented Policing.
WP6: Gender
Among vulnerable groups in post-conflict societies, women are often included specifically. But men, too, may be at particular risk. Gender relations are therefore especially important in the ICT4COP resaerch project.
Among vulnerable groups in post-conflict societies, women are often included specifically. But men, too, may be at particular risk. Gender relations are therefore especially important in the ICT4COP resaerch project.
Contributing staff:
Katarzyna Struzińska
Research Associate & PhD Candidate, Department of Sociology of Law, Faculty of Law and Administration, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
WP6: Gender Issues & WP10: South Eastern Europe.
Responsible for case country Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Erika Rojas
PhD Fellow, Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)
WP6: Gender and WP9: Central America
Rojas participated in meetings and discussions, presented a paper at the ICT4COP panel at ISA 2018 in San Francisco, published an article about COP and gender in El Salvador, and collaborated in the writing of other articles.WP7: Africa
In Africa, our research concentrates on Somalia, Somaliland, Kenya and Uganda.
The work package has analyzed institutional, political, social and cultural constraints and opportunities for operationalizing community-oriented policing (COP) in these three countries.
The research includes both analyses of the development and implementation of police reforms and COP initiatives, in addition to the relationship between police and local people in specific environments (e.g. urban, remote, coastal), and population sectors (e.g. youth, women).
Another important aspect for the work package has been to assess the ways in which perceptions of security and justice shift according to environmental or structural factors, and to how ICT and other innovations might contribute to improving community trust in police.
Contributing staff:
Stian Lid
Senior Researcher, Centre for Welfare and Labour Research, OsloMet, Norway
Leader of WP7: Africa from mid-2020 through the project’s end, organizing the work packages regional workshop. Lid contributed to the project through his research on COP policies in transitional countries, and the dynamics between youth groups, community-based organizations and local police in Mathare.
Alice Hills
Visiting Professor of Conflict Studies, Universities of Durham and Leeds, UK
Leader of WP7: Africa from 2015-2020. Her personal research focused on developments in Somalia and Somaliland.
Ingvild Gjelsvik
Research Fellow and PhD Candidate, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Norwegian Police University College. Affiliated with the Center for Research on Extremism, University of Oslo, Norway
Studyied police reform, people-centered policing and the implementation of two state-initiated COP initiatives in Kenya. Her work, which highlights locally initiated bottom-up approaches to improve police-public trust, is based on fieldwork in urban and rural parts of Kenya, focusing on local experiences and perspectives on police-public relations and central factors hindering the successful implementation of the two COP initiatives.
Sarah Biecker
Research Fellow, Institute for Intercultural and International Studies, University of Bremen, Germany
Investigated community policing in Northern Uganda. Biecker conducted research in the police, in communities, courts and local governments, specifically investigating the role of women in policing processes.
Clifford Okwany
PhD Candidate, University of Nairobi. Adjunct Lecturer, University of Nairobi and Rongo University. Political scientist trained in Kenya and Norway
Okwany conducted field work in Kenya and Somalia, as well as data collection. He took part in the planning and execution of the ICT4COP annual conferences and has contributed to writing WP7’s report on COP in Kenya, cowriting two articles and a policy brief, and organizing the Nairobi Workshop Seminar.
WP8: South Asia
In Asia, we conducted research in Pakistan and Afghanistan.
These two countries offer quite different contexts in terms of the way community-oriented policing is approached. In Afghanistan, police reform has been a part of a larger reform agenda after years of war, where the international community has been a strong contributing actor. In Pakistan on the other hand, conflict has taken the form of military operations in the border regions and terrorist activities elsewhere as well, and there has been no concerted effort by the international community to drive police reform, aside from bilateral assistance.
The work package has given particular attention to exploring issues of trust between the police and the community, including police integrity; and to how ICT and other innovations might contribute to improving community trust in police, both in terms of access of vulnerable groups to services, and in preventing crime and radicalization, particularly of youth.
Contributing staff:
Bahadar Nawab Khattak
Chairman, Department of Development Studies, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI) Abbottabad Campus. Steering Committee Member, Himalayan University Consortium at ICIMOD
Team leader for the research conducted in Pakistan. His research focus is on reform processes in the police, with a particular emphasis on how the police link to local institutions. Khattak's core areas of specialization are in post-crises development, community-based policing, conflict, peace and development, institutions and policy analysis, institutional bricolage, livelihoods and human security, climate change adaptation water supply and sanitation leading to sustainable development.
Jaishankar Ganapathy
Associate Professor, Norwegian Police University College. Social Anthropologist, University of Oslo, Norway
WP8: South Asia; WP4: Police Training and Education; and WP5: Youth Issues. Ganapathy's research focused mainly on Afghanistan, including COP in Afghanistan, Norwegian police contributions in Afghanistan, Youth in Afghanistan, as well as other broader considerations of COP and police reform.
Shakir Ullah
Research Associate, Department of Development Studies, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Pakistan
Collected data from field study areas in Pakistan and wrote multiple articles for the project. Additionally, Ullah took part in various meetings, workshops and conferences and performed other administrative tasks related to the project.
Tahir Maqsood
Assistant Professor of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Pakistan
Investigated how information and communication technology can be leveraged to implement COP considering the local context. Maqsood was a member of the team working on a pilot project for developing an application to assist different stakeholders involved in handling gender-based violence cases.
Abda Khalid
Assistant Professor, COMSATS Abbottabad and Postdoc, Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)
Contributed as a member of the research team at COMSATS Abbottabad. Focus: gender-based violence and community policing in post-conflict areas in Northern Pakistan.
Sajjad Madani
Professor, Department of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI), Pakistan
Advised the team working on use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) for community-oriented policing. Madani actively participated to establish collaboration between WP8 researchers and various government and non-governmental organizations for the development of pilot project. He was instrumental in organizing seminars, workshops, and other disseminations activities of WP8.
Ajmal Nimruzi
PhD Fellow, Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)
Researcher on the Afghanistan case. Nimruzi conducted extensive qualitative field research in several provinces in both urban and rural areas. He co-authored several articles on COP in Afghanistan with a particular focus on local institutions, youth and technology.
WP9: Central America
In Central America, we conducted research in Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador.
In our research program in Central America we analyzed reasons explaining the different development histories of the police in these three countries, and we have studied the peculiarities of the community-oriented policing programs established. A core aim is to establish what constitutes 'legitimate' policing in the eyes of the citizenry in these countries, and why it has been difficult to sustain community-oriented policing programs at the national level.
Contributing staff:
Arturo Matute
Associated Researcher, Faculty of Social Sciences, Del Valle University, Guatemala
Work Package 9: Central America
Coordinated research in two very different municipalities of Guatemala: In highland, indigenous, strongly-organized Totonicapán, and in urban, disorderly, high-violence Villa Canales. Matute's research examined if community-oriented policing strategies open opportunities to forward police reform in the high-violence, low-trust, weak-institutions, post-conflict context of Guatemala.
Hugo Frühling
Professor (Public Affairs Institute), Director (Institute of Public Affairs, University of Chile). Former Executive Secretary of the Public Security Coordinating Council of the Chilean Government and advisor to Chile's Minister of the Interior
Work Package 9: Central America
Prepared desk-based studies on Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua. He reviewed some of the articles prepared for the study and collaborated in the preparation of a literature review on trust, legitimacy, and police accountability.Erika Rojas
PhD Fellow, Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)
WP6: Gender and WP9: Central America
Rojas participated in meetings and discussions, presented a paper at the ICT4COP panel at ISA 2018 in San Francisco, published an article about COP and gender in El Salvador, and collaborated in the writing of other articles.
Skarlleth Martínez Prado
Independent researcher and political analyst
Work Package 9: Central America
Research assist who assisted the work package leader with field and desk research in Nicaragua on cross-cutting themes including youth, gender, technology, and police training, and co-authored an article on community-based policing in Nicaragua.WP10: South East Europe
In South-East Europe, we conducted research in Serbia, Kosovo and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
This work package looked in particular at police reform in the three cases, taking into account the central part the rule of law plays in democratization in post-conflict societies.
Our research objectives included the evaluation of existing material on community-oriented policing by international organizations and NGOs, and the drafting of context and region specific handbooks of community-oriented policing.
For more information, see the website developed for the Western Balkans: https://www.cop2020.eu/index.php/en
Contributing staff:
Fabienne Coenders
Research Officer, Ruhr University in Bochum (RUB), Germany
Leader of WP5: Gender Issues and WP10: South East Europe. Within WP5, she conducted cross-cutting research on youth across all the project’s study regions, and within WP10 she was specifically responsible for research conducted in Kosovo.
Katarzyna Struzińska
Research Associate & PhD Candidate, Department of Sociology of Law, Faculty of Law and Administration, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
WP6: Gender Issues & WP10: South Eastern Europe.
Responsible for case country Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Janina Czapska
Professor and Head of the Department of Sociology of Law, Faculty of Law and Administration, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
Work Package 10: South Eastern Europe. Leader of the Polish research team.
Tomasz Kwoka
Assistant Professor, Department of Serbian Philology, Institute of Slavic Studies, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
Work Package 10: South Eastern Europe. Responsible for the case country Serbia.
Thomas Feltes
Lawyer and social scientist, Law Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
Supervised and formally led the efforts of Ruhr University Bochum in the ICT4COP project from 2015 to the summer of 2019, only leaving the project due to retirement. Feltes was actively involved in the grant application process and took part in setting out the objectives for the work in WP5 and WP10. His extensive network in South-East Europe as well as elsewhere in the academic, policing and policymaking world was strongly beneficial to the project.
Monika Skrzeszewska
PhD Candidate, Institute of Slavic Studies, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
Work Package 10: Regional Focus South-Eastern Europe. In 2016, Skrzeszewska conducted research on case country Serbia.
Tobias Singlenstein
Chair of Criminology, Law Faculty, Ruhr University in Bochum (RUB), Germany
WP5: Youth Issues and WP10: South East Europe. Supervised and formally led the efforts of Ruhr University Bochum starting in the summer of 2019 until the project’s extended end date in November 2020. He was also engaged in the planning and implementation of the post-project exploitation plan.
Robin Hoffman
Assistant Professor, Department for Criminal Law and Criminology, Maastricht University, Netherlands
WP5: Youth Issues and WP10: South East Europe. Conducted extensive field research in Kosovo for the project until the beginning of 2018. Together with Thomas Feltes, he published the International Handbook on Information Communication Technologies for Community Oriented Policing.
WP11: Dissemination and Exploitation of Results
Contributing staff:
Daniel Lohmann
Leader of WP11: Dissemination and Exploitation of Results from September 2020 through the end of the project. Previously contributed to WP2 as a research assistant. He co-wrote an editorial for the project’s special issue on police-community relations, reviewed various articles and policy briefs, participated in workshops and conferences for the project, and helped draft the project’s final reporting.
Neil Davey
PhD Candidate, Faculty of Technology, Art and Design, OsloMet, Norway
Led Work Package 11: Dissemination and Exploitation of Results between March 2019 and September 2020. Davey produced a series of digital stories as part of Work Package 2’s eHandbook and authored an article on the digital storytelling methodology.
Frode Bjerkås
Political Scientist and strategy advisor, Norway
Led Work Package 11: Dissemination and Exploitation of Results from 2015 to March 2019, and was a part of the coordination committee. As such, he contributed to project dissemination and administration.
Police Experts Network (PEN)
A key element of the ICT4COP project was the Police Experts Network (PEN). PEN is a dynamic network consisting of approximately 50 individual volunteer members, including academics, NGOs and police professionals. All have experience and knowledge on Community-Oriented Policing (COP) in post-conflict environments. The main idea of integration of a Police Experts Network into the research project was to include policing experts together with police professionals from selected European countries as well as experts from a variety of international institutions, national police services and individuals with experience from international police missions in the project’s 11 case countries. Thus, the PEN’s practical knowledge and expertise has enriched the post-conflict research findings, resulting in material that is dually grounded in research and practice. Recruitment to the PEN is an ongoing process and includes both retired and active professionals.
Partner institutions
15 leading academic and non-academic institutions collaborated on this project. Ten of these are based in Europe. The remaining five are based in Asia, Africa and Central America.
- PROJECT COORDINATOR
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)
NMBU is the project coordinator and at the Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, several researchers are involved. Associate Professor Dr. Ingrid Nyborg leads the project. - PROJECT PARTNERS
- Durham University, United Kingdom
Durham University is among the leading British universities, and Professor Alice Hills at the university’s School of Government and International Affairs leads our work package on Africa. - Jagiellonian University, Poland
Jagiellonian is Poland’s oldest university, established in 1400 on the remains of what were a university in Krakow. Professor Janina Czpaska leads a research team at the university that works on South Eastern Europe together with our Ruhr University Bochum partners and gender dimensions together with NMBU. - Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany
Founded in 1962, the Ruhr University Bochum is among the largest universities in Germany. At the Faculty of Law, Department of Criminology, Criminal Policy and Police Science, Prof. Thomas Feltes leads the Eastern Europe work package in our project. - Norwegian Police University College (PHS), Norway
As the national police training institution in Norway, the PHS offers bachelor and master degree programs and conducts research into national and international policing. Chief Superintendent Tor Damkaas leads our work package for police training, and also manages our larger, independent international policing experts network. - University of Bremen, Germany
The University of Bremen developed from a teacher training institute to become a fully-fledge university with expertise in natural as well as social sciences and technology. the University’s Sarah Biecker works on our Africa studies. - University of Oslo, Norway
The Department of Informatics, University of Oslo (UiO) is responsible for coordinationg technology efforts across the project. The technology development work package is led by Arunima Sehgal Mukherjee. - Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI), Norway
NUPI is among the most pre-eminent foreign affairs institutions in Norway and was recently named as a top-ranking international affairs think tank by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program. From NUPI senior resercher Dr. Kari Osland, among others, has joined our project, working on community policing in comparison and South East Europe. - Norwegian Institute for Urban and Regional Research (NIBR), Norway
NIBR recently joined the Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences as part of its Centre for Welfare and Labour Research. Stian Lid, researcher at NIBR, works on this project’s regional focus on Africa. - Applied Intelligence Analytics (AIA), Ireland
AIA develops data analytics software solutions. In this project, Thomas Knape of AIA works on analytics to inform our police training research efforts. - ASSOCIATED PROJECT PARTNERS
- Comsats Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
Dr. Badahar Nawab and Comsats at the Abbottabad campus in Pakistan collaborate with the project on the South Asia regional research package. - Norwegian Church Aid (NCA), Afghanistan
NCA supports NMBU researchers in Afghanistan. - Universidad Del Valle Guatemala, Guatemala
To help us with our research in Central America, we have teamed up with Arturo Matute of Universidad Del Valle Guatemala. - University of Chile, Chile
Professor Hugo Fruhling of the Unviersity of Chile works together with our Central America research team.
